Africa After Independence: Challenges, Transformations, and Historical Reflections

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{After independence, many African nations kept colonial legislation. By 2015, most began replacing these with local laws. This change reflects a move towards self-governance. It highlights the effort to adapt legislation to meet the unique needs of diverse African societies and their historical contexts.}

Transformations emerged as nations sought to redefine their identities. Efforts to promote education and health care expanded opportunities. The rise of pan-Africanism encouraged unity among states, fostering collaboration on issues like trade and security. Additionally, some countries embraced democratic reforms, while others remained authoritarian.

Historical reflections reveal the complexities of nation-building in post-colonial contexts. Leaders, once regarded as liberators, faced scrutiny for failing to deliver on promises. Social movements began to rise, advocating for rights and better governance.

In light of these events, the journey toward sustainable development and socio-political stability continues. Understanding these recent historical developments lays the groundwork for exploring the current state of Africa. Today, the continent navigates a path shaped by past struggles and achievements, leading into discussions on its contemporary challenges and prospects.

What Were the Key Challenges Faced by African Nations After Independence?

African nations faced several key challenges after achieving independence. These challenges included political instability, economic dependency, ethnic conflicts, and social inequalities.

  1. Political Instability
  2. Economic Dependency
  3. Ethnic Conflicts
  4. Social Inequalities

The transition into deeper explanations reveals the complexities underlying these challenges and their impacts on nation-building.

1. Political Instability:
Political instability refers to a lack of consistent governance and often results in government changes, coups, and unrest. Many newly independent African nations experienced frequent changes in leadership and even civil wars. For instance, Nigeria witnessed a series of coups after its independence in 1960. The CIA World Factbook indicates that these political shifts undermined stability and economic progress.

2. Economic Dependency:
Economic dependency occurs when a country’s economy relies heavily on external support or imports. Post-independence, many African nations found themselves dependent on former colonial powers for trade and aid. This reliance limited their economic growth and autonomy. For example, Zambia’s copper economy has been heavily influenced by foreign companies, making it vulnerable to global market fluctuations. A 2019 UN report stated that 50% of African nations struggle with overreliance on a few commodities.

3. Ethnic Conflicts:
Ethnic conflicts arise when different ethnic groups vie for power and resources. Many African nations, like Rwanda and Sudan, faced heightened ethnic tensions post-independence. The lack of effort to address divisions left deep-rooted grievances. The 1994 Rwandan Genocide is a grim illustration of how ethnic rivalries can escalate into violence, resulting in the loss of approximately 800,000 lives, as documented by Human Rights Watch.

4. Social Inequalities:
Social inequalities denote disparities in wealth, education, and healthcare among different groups within a society. After independence, many new governments struggled to bridge the gap between urban and rural populations, and between different economic classes. Countries like South Africa still face extensive inequalities based on race and economic status, largely rooted in their apartheid history. The World Bank highlights that around 50% of Africa’s population lives on less than $1.90 a day, showcasing the urgent need for socioeconomic reforms.

How Did Colonial Legacies Shape Governance in Post-Colonial Africa?

Colonial legacies have significantly influenced governance in post-colonial Africa by establishing political structures, fostering state institutions, and creating social hierarchies that persisted after independence.

The influence of colonial legacies on governance in post-colonial Africa can be examined in several key areas:

  1. Political Structures: Colonial powers often implemented centralized administrations. This resulted in a top-down governance model that persisted post-independence. For instance, many African countries retained the bureaucratic structures established by colonial regimes, which were often ill-suited to local needs. A study by Young (2012) found that many leaders in post-colonial Africa adopted authoritarian governance, reflecting the centralized colonial systems.

  2. State Institutions: The legal and political institutions left by colonial rulers mainly served the interests of the colonial powers. These institutions lacked legitimacy among local populations. A report by the World Bank (2017) indicated that weak institutions in many African nations hindered effective governance and contributed to corruption and inefficiency in public services.

  3. Social Hierarchies: Colonial rule often exacerbated existing ethnic divisions and created new ones. These divisions were manipulated for political gain during the colonial period. Post-independence, countries like Rwanda and Sudan experienced conflicts largely rooted in colonial-era divisions. According to Lemarchand (2009), these divisions have had long-lasting impacts on social cohesion and national unity.

  4. Economic Dependency: The economic systems established by colonizers focused on extraction rather than sustainable development. Countries became dependent on a few export commodities. A 2018 report by the African Development Bank noted that this dependency has impeded economic diversification and self-sufficiency in many post-colonial African states.

  5. Cultural Legacies: Colonial education systems prioritized the languages and cultures of the colonizers. This has resulted in a continued preference for colonial languages in governance and education. A study by Banda (2013) showed that this preference often marginalized indigenous languages, affecting citizenship and participation in national dialogue.

These colonial legacies have created complexities in governance and social structures that continue to affect the political and economic landscape of African nations today. Addressing these legacies is crucial for achieving sustainable development and improving governance in post-colonial Africa.

What Transformations Occurred in African Economies After Gaining Independence?

African economies underwent significant transformations after gaining independence in the mid-20th century. These changes included shifts in economic structures, governance approaches, and external relations.

Key transformations in African economies after independence include:
1. Nationalization of key industries
2. Development of agricultural policies
3. Diversification of trade partners
4. Establishment of regional economic organizations
5. Increased foreign aid and investment
6. Rise of informal economies
7. Challenges of corruption and mismanagement

These transformations generated varied impacts across the continent, leading to both advancements and setbacks in economic development.

  1. Nationalization of Key Industries:
    Nationalization of key industries refers to governments taking control over important sectors previously owned by foreign investors. This process aimed to increase state revenues and control essential resources. For instance, in Ghana, Kwame Nkrumah nationalized the gold and diamond industries in the 1960s to boost national income. While this provided short-term revenue, critics argued it stifled foreign investment and led to inefficiency.

  2. Development of Agricultural Policies:
    Development of agricultural policies became crucial for food security and economic stability. Many countries implemented policies aimed at increasing crop production and ensuring self-sufficiency. For example, in Ethiopia, the government launched the Agricultural Development-Led Industrialization strategy in the 1990s. This approach significantly improved agricultural productivity. However, these policies also led to challenges, such as land tenure conflicts and reliance on subsistence farming.

  3. Diversification of Trade Partners:
    Diversification of trade partners became essential for economic resilience. Newly independent nations sought to reduce dependency on a few countries, particularly former colonial powers. For instance, Tanzania established trade relations with China during the Cold War. This shift allowed countries to explore new markets and foster economic growth. However, reliance on foreign partnerships raised concerns regarding economic sovereignty.

  4. Establishment of Regional Economic Organizations:
    Establishment of regional economic organizations facilitated cooperation among African nations. The African Union (AU) and Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) aimed to promote regional integration and economic development. For instance, ECOWAS has worked to reduce tariffs among member states. Critics argue, however, that political instability within some member states hinders effective collaboration.

  5. Increased Foreign Aid and Investment:
    Increased foreign aid and investment played a vital role in economic development post-independence. Many countries relied on external funding to support infrastructure and social programs. For example, Mozambique received substantial aid after its civil war. While foreign aid often boosts development efforts, it can sometimes create dependency, limiting local economic growth initiatives.

  6. Rise of Informal Economies:
    The rise of informal economies became a significant aspect of economic life in many African nations. In cities like Lagos, Nigeria, informal markets offered employment opportunities and services. This sector contributes significantly to urban economies, often outpacing formal sectors. However, the informal economy lacks regulation, exposing workers to vulnerabilities and inadequate protections.

  7. Challenges of Corruption and Mismanagement:
    Challenges of corruption and mismanagement emerged as significant barriers to economic growth. Many governments faced issues of graft, leading to resource misallocation. The Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index consistently ranks several African nations low on governance metrics. Effective governance remains crucial for sustainable development and attracting foreign investment.

These transformations created a complex economic landscape in Africa, characterized by a mix of opportunities and challenges. The ongoing journey of African nations continues to shape their economic futures.

Which Economic Policies Were Implemented to Promote Growth in Newly Independent Nations?

The newly independent nations implemented various economic policies to promote growth during their transition. These policies aimed to stabilize economies, encourage industrialization, and improve overall living standards.

  1. Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI)
  2. Export-oriented Industrialization (EOI)
  3. Land Reform Policies
  4. Nationalization of Key Industries
  5. Economic Diversification
  6. Investment in Education and Infrastructure

To explore these policies further, we can analyze each one and their implications in the context of newly independent nations.

  1. Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI):
    Import substitution industrialization (ISI) involves reducing foreign dependency by promoting local industries. This policy encourages the production of goods locally that a nation previously imported. Countries like India and Brazil adopted ISI in the mid-20th century. A 2013 study by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) found that ISI initially helped these nations build a manufacturing base and stimulated job creation. However, over time, excessive protectionism led to inefficiencies and stagnation.

  2. Export-oriented Industrialization (EOI):
    Export-oriented industrialization (EOI) focuses on enhancing production for export markets. This policy aims to integrate newly independent nations into the global economy. Countries like South Korea successfully implemented EOI in the late 20th century by creating competitive industries for exports. According to a study by the World Bank in 2000, EOI generated significant economic growth and increased foreign investment. However, critics argue that reliance on global markets can lead to vulnerability to external shocks.

  3. Land Reform Policies:
    Land reform policies involve redistributing land from large landowners to landless farmers. This approach aims to promote agricultural productivity and reduce inequality. For instance, the land reforms initiated in Tanzania during the 1970s sought to improve rural livelihoods. Research by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) in 2012 indicated that such policies can enhance food security but can face challenges including resistance from established landowners.

  4. Nationalization of Key Industries:
    Nationalization refers to the state taking control of previously privately-owned industries. Newly independent nations often nationalized vital sectors such as mining or oil to retain revenue and ensure local job creation. For example, Egypt nationalized its Suez Canal in 1956. A 2006 report by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) emphasized that while this could lead to short-term gains, mismanagement and corruption in state-run enterprises often undermined long-term benefits.

  5. Economic Diversification:
    Economic diversification refers to developing multiple sectors within an economy to reduce reliance on a single source of income. This policy helps newly independent nations build resilience against economic shocks. Countries like Nigeria promoted diversification to lessen dependence on oil revenues. Data from the African Development Bank in 2019 suggested that diversified economies experience more stable growth rates than those reliant on a few commodities.

  6. Investment in Education and Infrastructure:
    Investment in education and infrastructure is critical for long-term economic growth. Countries focused on improving schools, healthcare, and transportation systems to support development. A 2021 study by the World Bank found that investing in human capital through education leads to better economic outcomes. Infrastructure investments also facilitate trade and create job opportunities.

Collectively, these economic policies illustrate the varying approaches newly independent nations have taken to foster growth and development, accompanied by successes and challenges faced along the way.

How Did Agricultural Practices Change Following Independence?

Agricultural practices in many countries changed significantly following independence due to various reforms, technological advancements, and shifting socio-economic conditions.

The key points regarding these changes include:

  1. Land Reforms: Post-independence governments implemented land reforms to redistribute land from colonial powers to local farmers. For example, in countries like India, the abolition of zamindari (landlord) systems allowed small farmers to gain ownership, which increased agricultural productivity.

  2. Introduction of Modern Techniques: Governments promoted the use of modern farming techniques. This included the adoption of high-yield variety (HYV) seeds, chemical fertilizers, and pesticides. A study by Pingali (2012) noted that these innovations boosted crop yields, especially in staple crops like rice and wheat.

  3. Government Support Programs: Many nations established support programs for farmers. Initiatives like subsidized credit, minimum support prices, and agricultural extension services aimed to enhance farmers’ income and encourage production. For instance, in India, the Green Revolution program (1960s-1980s) played a crucial role in increasing food grain production.

  4. Shift to Commercial Farming: The focus of agriculture shifted from subsistence farming to more commercialized practices. Farmers began growing cash crops such as cotton, sugarcane, and coffee for export, which helped improve national economies.

  5. Irrigation Projects: Many countries invested in irrigation projects to enhance agricultural output. Improved irrigation systems helped reduce dependence on rainfall and ensured better crop yields. The World Bank (2017) reported that such projects doubled agricultural productivity in several regions.

  6. Research and Education: Agricultural education and research institutions were established to support farmers with improved practices and technology. These institutions provided training, which led to a better understanding of sustainable farming methods.

  7. Cooperative Movements: Farmers organized into cooperatives to pool resources and access markets collectively. This collaboration helped small farmers increase their bargaining power and secure better prices for their produce.

These changes transformed agricultural practices significantly, enhancing productivity, improving food security, and fostering economic growth in the post-independence era.

In What Ways Did Nationalism Influence Post-Colonial African Identities?

Nationalism significantly influenced post-colonial African identities. It fostered unity among diverse ethnic groups. Nationalism encouraged people to embrace their shared history and cultural heritage. This movement often replaced colonial identities with new national identities. Leaders promoted symbols, languages, and narratives that reflected local cultures.

Nationalist movements sought independence from colonial powers. They motivated citizens to envision a self-governing nation-state. This sparked a resurgence in traditional customs and practices. Cultural revival helped people reclaim their identities.

Nationalism also led to debates about citizenship and belonging. Citizens started to question their roles in a newly formed society. The influence of nationalism inspired movements for social justice and economic development. It challenged the remnants of colonialism in governance and legislation.

Overall, nationalism reshaped identities by instilling pride and solidarity. It acted as a catalyst for both unification and internal conflict. Thus, nationalism played a crucial role in defining post-colonial African identities.

How Did Conflicts and Civil Wars Impact Stability in Post-Independence Africa?

Conflicts and civil wars have significantly undermined stability in post-independence Africa by causing political fragmentation, economic disruption, social unrest, and widespread human suffering.

Political fragmentation: Many post-independence African states struggled to establish cohesive national identities. Ethnic tensions often escalated into conflict, which fragmented political power. For example, the Rwandan Civil War (1990-1994) stemmed from long-standing ethnic divisions, leading to a genocide that claimed around 800,000 lives according to the United Nations (UN, 1999). This fragmentation weakened central governments and made it difficult to implement effective governance.

Economic disruption: Civil strife severely impacted economic stability in many African nations. War often destroyed infrastructure, disrupted trade, and led to declines in foreign investment. A study by the World Bank (2003) indicated that countries experiencing conflict suffered an average GDP loss of 2.3% annually. For instance, the civil war in Sierra Leone (1991-2002) devastated the country’s diamond industry, which was a vital economic resource.

Social unrest: Conflicts contributed to deepening social divisions and creating cycles of violence. Displacement of populations resulted in refugee crises and humanitarian challenges. The Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre reported that, as of 2021, there were over 5 million internally displaced people in Africa due to conflicts. These situations perpetuate insecurity and social instability.

Human suffering: Civil wars lead to immense human suffering, including loss of life, injuries, and sexual violence. In addition to deaths in combat, many civilians face dire conditions. According to the UN’s Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA, 2022), millions in conflict-affected regions struggle with food insecurity and lack access to basic services such as healthcare and education. Such suffering often breeds further unrest and violence.

In summary, conflicts and civil wars have profoundly impacted stability in post-independence Africa, leading to political fragmentation, economic disruption, social unrest, and significant human suffering. The legacy of these conflicts continues to influence the continent’s development trajectory.

What Role Did Globalization Play in the Development of African Countries After Independence?

Globalization played a complex role in the development of African countries after independence. It both influenced economic growth and social change while also presenting significant challenges, such as dependency and inequality.

  1. Economic Integration
  2. Technology Transfer
  3. Cultural Exchange
  4. Trade Opportunities
  5. Dependency Issues

Globalization brought about numerous transformative elements in Africa, fostering both growth and challenges.

  1. Economic Integration:
    Economic integration represents the process where countries become more connected through trade and investment. Globalization facilitated a greater exchange of goods and services between Africa and the rest of the world. For instance, according to the African Development Bank, intra-African trade has increased significantly since the early 2000s, with trade volumes rising by over 10% annually. Countries like Kenya and South Africa have bolstered their economies by entering regional trade agreements, allowing them to benefit from larger markets.

  2. Technology Transfer:
    Technology transfer involves sharing of technology and expertise among nations. Globalization enabled African countries to adopt advanced technologies, particularly in sectors like agriculture and telecommunications. For example, mobile banking has revolutionized financial services in Kenya. According to a report by the World Bank, mobile money services like M-Pesa reached over 30 million customers, thereby enhancing access to financial services.

  3. Cultural Exchange:
    Cultural exchange occurs when cultures share ideas, traditions, and practices. Globalization has led to increased interaction between African and global cultures. This has enriched local arts and music, leading to contemporary styles like Afrobeats gaining international recognition. However, it also raises concerns about the preservation of indigenous cultures, as Western influences can overshadow local traditions.

  4. Trade Opportunities:
    Trade opportunities grew with globalization, allowing African nations to export natural resources. Countries such as Nigeria and Angola benefited from oil exports as global demand surged. However, reliance on commodity exports can render economies vulnerable to global price fluctuations, as seen during the oil price collapse of 2015.

  5. Dependency Issues:
    Dependency issues refer to an over-reliance on foreign aid and investment. Globalization can exacerbate these dependencies, as some African nations heavily rely on foreign markets and investments. Critics argue that this hinders local industries. According to a 2019 report by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), many African nations continue facing challenges in diversifying their economies despite the benefits of globalization.

Overall, globalization’s impact on African countries after independence is multifaceted. It has offered opportunities for growth and improvement, while also presenting challenges that require careful navigation.

What Progress Has Been Made in Education and Health Sectors Since Independence?

The progress made in the education and health sectors since independence has been significant but varied across different regions and communities. Improvements include increased access to education and healthcare, enhanced infrastructure, and policy reforms among other advancements.

  1. Increased Access to Education
  2. Improvement in Health Infrastructure
  3. Policy Reforms and Legislation
  4. Growth in Educational Enrollment Rates
  5. Advancements in Technology in Education
  6. Reduction in Child Mortality Rates
  7. Expansion of Preventive Health Programs
  8. Strengthening Health Systems
  9. Rise of Education and Health NGOs
  10. Challenges and Disparities in Access

The topic of progress in education and health sectors since independence is multifaceted, reflecting a range of achievements and ongoing challenges.

  1. Increased Access to Education:
    Increased access to education means more individuals can attend schools and gain knowledge. Many countries have established compulsory education laws, raising enrollment rates significantly. According to UNESCO, there has been a global increase of about 50% in primary school enrollment since the 1990s. For example, India’s Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan program aims to provide universal access to primary education, impacting millions of children.

  2. Improvement in Health Infrastructure:
    Improvement in health infrastructure refers to the development of hospitals, clinics, and healthcare facilities. Many nations have invested in building better healthcare infrastructure post-independence. The World Health Organization (WHO) reported that countries like Ethiopia made substantial progress, with health facilities increasing by nearly 50% between 2000 and 2015. These developments improve healthcare accessibility and service delivery.

  3. Policy Reforms and Legislation:
    Policy reforms and legislation have played a crucial role in shaping education and health sectors. Governments worldwide have implemented policies to enhance the quality of education and healthcare services. In 2010, the Right to Education Act in India provided free and compulsory education to children aged 6 to 14 years. Such policies can drive systemic change.

  4. Growth in Educational Enrollment Rates:
    The growth in educational enrollment rates indicates that more children are attending school. For instance, the global primary school enrollment rate reached 91% in 2015, as per UNICEF. This statistic shows a positive trend toward universal education. However, regional disparities still exist, with rural areas facing challenges.

  5. Advancements in Technology in Education:
    Advancements in technology in education refer to the incorporation of digital tools in learning processes. Online learning platforms and educational software have made education more accessible. During the COVID-19 pandemic, many institutions shifted to online learning, enhancing tech integration in education. Reports from the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) highlight that technology can bridge educational gaps when used effectively.

  6. Reduction in Child Mortality Rates:
    Reduction in child mortality rates reflects improvements in healthcare systems and interventions. According to WHO, the global under-five mortality rate fell by 59% from 1990 to 2019. This decline is attributed to improved healthcare access, nutrition, and preventive measures like vaccinations. Countries such as Bangladesh have made remarkable strides by implementing effective health programs.

  7. Expansion of Preventive Health Programs:
    Expansion of preventive health programs indicates a shift from treatment-focused healthcare to prevention. Initiatives like vaccination campaigns and health education have become more widespread. The Global Vaccine Action Plan, initiated by WHO, aims to immunize every child, contributing to preventing diseases.

  8. Strengthening Health Systems:
    Strengthening health systems involves improving the capacity, resources, and effectiveness of healthcare delivery. Many countries have reformed their health systems to provide better services. For example, the healthcare reforms in Rwanda focused on community health workers and universal health coverage, improving overall health indicators.

  9. Rise of Education and Health NGOs:
    The rise of education and health NGOs has provided additional support and resources to struggling sectors. Organizations like Save the Children and Teach for All have focused on filling gaps in education and health services globally. Their contributions have influenced policy and mobilized resources for local communities.

  10. Challenges and Disparities in Access:
    Challenges and disparities in access continue to impact education and health sectors. Despite progress, rural communities often face limited resources and infrastructure. According to a 2018 UNESCO report, over 260 million children worldwide were out of school, underscoring the need for continued efforts to achieve equality in access.

Overall, the progress in education and health since independence shows promising advancements, yet it also highlights the necessity for ongoing efforts and reforms to address existing disparities.

How Has Africa Attempted Regional Integration After Gaining Independence?

Africa has attempted regional integration after gaining independence through various initiatives and organizations. Countries recognized the importance of unity for economic growth and political stability. They established the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) in 1963, aiming to promote solidarity and collective security. The OAU later evolved into the African Union (AU) in 2001, focusing on economic integration and social development. Member states initiated programs like the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) to foster economic cooperation and investment. Additionally, regional economic communities, such as the East African Community (EAC) and the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), were formed to facilitate trade and political collaboration. These efforts also included the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA), launched in 2021, aimed at creating a single market for goods and services. Overall, Africa’s regional integration efforts reflect a commitment to collaboration and shared prosperity among nations.

What Key Lessons Can Be Learned from the Post-Independence Experience of African Nations?

The key lessons learned from the post-independence experience of African nations include the importance of political stability, economic diversification, social cohesion, effective governance, and the role of external influences.

  1. Political Stability
  2. Economic Diversification
  3. Social Cohesion
  4. Effective Governance
  5. Role of External Influences

These lessons highlight varied experiences and underscore the challenges faced by African nations after gaining independence. They reflect different approaches and outcomes in governance, economic policies, and social dynamics.

  1. Political Stability: Political stability is crucial for the success of any nation, especially in post-independence Africa. Political instability often leads to conflicts and civil wars, disrupting development. For instance, countries like Somalia experienced severe instability post-independence, which has persisted for decades. According to the African Development Bank, stable governance fosters economic growth. Lack of stability can drive away foreign investment, as seen in countries suffering from coups or unrest.

  2. Economic Diversification: Economic diversification refers to the process of expanding a nation’s economy beyond a few sectors. Many African nations relied heavily on a single commodity, exposing them to global price fluctuations. Nigeria’s dependence on oil made its economy vulnerable to price drops, leading to economic crises. The World Bank emphasized the need for Africa to diversify into sectors like agriculture and technology to build resilience against external shocks.

  3. Social Cohesion: Social cohesion, or the degree of solidarity within a society, is essential for national unity. Post-independence, many African nations grappled with ethnic divisions that threatened stability. In Rwanda, ethnic tensions escalated into genocide in the 1990s. Studies, such as the one by Marcus Moore (2015), indicate that fostering inclusiveness and addressing historical grievances contribute to lasting peace and unity.

  4. Effective Governance: Effective governance involves the establishment of institutions that uphold the rule of law, ensure accountability, and encourage citizen participation. Countries with strong governance structures, such as Botswana, have shown greater economic stability and growth. The United Nations Development Programme highlights that effective governance directly impacts development outcomes. Corruption, on the other hand, has hindered progress in many African nations, according to Transparency International’s Corruption Perceptions Index.

  5. Role of External Influences: External influences encompass foreign interventions, aid, and trade relationships, which have significantly shaped African nations’ post-independence paths. Some argue that the legacy of colonialism continues to affect political and economic structures. In contrast, accessing foreign markets can foster growth if managed well. The African Union, in its 2022 report, emphasized the importance of establishing equitable partnerships with foreign countries to enhance economic independence.

These lessons provide critical insights into the paths taken by African nations after independence, reflecting on successes and failures that continue to influence their development trajectories today.

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